The story of Einstein
The first world war (WWI) started in august 2014, and the German army proceeded very fast through Belgium. This rapid progression created a problem in the cities that were already captured, as the main army moved on to other locations. Harsh measures were taken to avoid any kind of resistance. In the city of Leuven in Belgium, a large part was burned down by the German army as an act of punishment, because apparently, some Belgian fired at the German soldiers. One of the many buildings that got burned down, was the university hall. It contained the library with manuscripts dating back to the middle ages.
The Germans had no respect for culture and civilians. What made it even worse is that many intellectuals and scientists reacted to the propaganda.
A pamphlet of a few pages, was created, that defended an undefendable crime. Some of the signatures were from Planck, Nernst, Wien, etc. The best of the German scientists. Science used to be neutral and international, suddenly this changed; they considered themselves Germans, and only then scientists. During the war, poison gas was developed, but the Germans were the first to use it. Eventhuogh It was initially discovered by Haber to produce ammonium for agriculture. After the war, German scientsits were considered bad people. They had not stayed neutral. This was the reason why they were boycotted after the war. They were prevented from collaboration with scientists from allied countried.
There were exceptions, such as the Netherlands, and Sweden. That is why Nobel prizes were still awarded to Germans (i.e. Planck and Haber).
There was one German who did not sign the propaganda; Einstein. He wrote his own pamphlet, depicting science as neutral. He dared to stand up against his government. Eventhough he was excempt from the boycot, and he was allowed to go to conferences, he decided to go only when other Germans were invited as well.
At this same time, also something else important happened. Quantum mechanics was important within the physics community, but his relativity theory had immediate reactions from everyone. During WW1 he expanded his theory, and proposed the general theory of relativity in 1915. He knew that he needed experimental evidance, therefore, he proposed to look for an eclipse. This was not possible during the war, so he had to wait till 1919, after WW1. The royal society performed two expeditions, one in Brazil and the other in some African islands. The bending of light was verified shortly after, just as Einstein predicted. He became world famous and the symbol of a new world. The theory itself was not well understood, but it gave a new vision of the world, and that was exactly what people needed so briefly after the war. Even with the fact that again it was an indication of supremacy of German science.
Einstein was the most iconic figure in physics in the 20th century. But he was also a very singular person, difference from every other physicist. Einstein did not have a normal education. He was born in Germany from a Jewish family. His father went bankrupt and they moved to Italy. There he abandonded the Germany nationality, and he became a stateless person. Later on in live he went to Berlin and worked in a patent office, reviewing the patents that were submitted. In 1905, he published 4 article, but only in 1921 did he get the Nobel prize, for “his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect”.
At this point, things started to unravel in politics and in his life. A lot of people were against Jews and science, and this created an atmosphere in which Einstan wasn’t happy. He started to accept invitations from all over the world, of which some were quite long journeys, to avoid being in Germany. This was possible because in this period, he was the most famous scientist in the world. by the 5th Solvay conference, in 1927, Einstein was considered to be of the former generation. For many of the German physicists, Einstan was a past generation.
Besides a physicist, he was also considered a master in pacifism. He was asked to collaborate with an international institute to publish a book on pacifism. This volume was formed by correspondence between Freud and Einstein.
Then, in 1933, new events started to occur. Nazis took over power, and one of the first laws was to prohibit Jews from participating in government activities. As the universities were part of the government, a lot of Jews in academia had to leave. Even Haber, the most famous chemist in Germany had to leave. Einstein was also forbidden to enter Germany again. He had a house, a bank account, and more in Germany, but he could not claim anything. A family in Antwerp, Belgium, offered him a refuge for the summer. During this time, he received a lot of people, that wanted to give him a job. He also had contact with the Belgian royal family, as the Belgian queen was a German. At this time in Belgium, there was a military trial for 2 boys that refused to join the army. Einstein used his connections with the king to talk about this trial. He declared to be a pacifist, but in view of what was happening in Germany, it would be better to be prepared for war. He relocated to the USA, where he would spend the rest of his life. Einstein, never was much interested in the USA. The first time he went there 91921) he was quite negative (no culture), but he admitted that it was a nation with a lot of willpower and possibilities. In the 1930s he agreed to teach in the USA. But it was quite different from how it was in Europe; he had to adapt to the American way of doing science. His first paper was rejected by the peer review (which wasn’t a thing in Germany). This is where I want to end solely on Einstein and broaden the horizon.
Physics from around the world
In Germany, the Nazi’s came to rule, and there was this movement for German physics, which started basically with Philip Lenard and Johannes Stark., both Nobel laureates. They said that all major scientists came from Aryan race, and that it had to do with a certain attitude. But that is not true, I want to highlight a few aspects to avoid misguiding from western bias.
In 1967, Basalla published a paper regarding the development of western science. He said that science was a western thing, and that it spread unidirectional to other countries across the world (from Europe to asia, latin america, etc). His model was composed by 3 phases:
- Non-scientific nations: This coincides withthe 16th century to the 19th century, when western countries were interested in exotic countries, for their minterals, botanic information and more. A good example was Darwin who traveled across the world, collected geo specimens, and more. But in his research he never mentioned a local scientist that he met or that helped him.
- Colonial science: Many of the western countries entered in a form of colonialism. They had to control the country, for their resources. They created institutions for geology, or hospitals, where western people actually worked. They did hire locals to work for them, but at a lower level. Not very much happened, western people worked there, but they still published in their own country and in their own language.
- Third phase: This phase is the transplantation of existing organizations. After the second world war, many western nations were exhausted, as they used up a lot of resources to fight. They couldn’t keep control over their colonies, which became independent. Thus, the locals reused the colonial institutes as their own.
This model is not always true or complete. Not all countries have been colonies; such as Japan that was never a colony of anyone. The second major problem is that it suggests that the colonial phase is beneficial for the colony. That is not the case; the rulers were actively trying to stop any scientific development of the locals.
The Basalla model is much too naive. The phase of independence needs a lot of conditions to be met, that allows the country to be scientific with a quick development. Many conditions were already there during the colonial era. Some of these conditions are that you receive education in your home country; gain respect from your work in your own country; You should be able to find intellectual stimuation in your surroundings; and more. Most of these conditions also applied to western Eruope in the 16th and 17th century.
Japan
Japan is a very interesting conutry. In the 17th century, there was a decision by the regime to close the borders; no one could leave or neither the country. The port city of Nagasaki was the only contact with the outside world. This lasted until 1868, when there was a new regime that opened the borders. Modernization started rapidly. While before there was suspicion against the west, after 1868, they more or less adopted the American mode, by sending their best students to Germany and the USA. This Meiji government did import western technology, but not science as a way of thinking. The Taisho government (1912-1926) had more modernization, even introducing the scientific spirit. When Einstein was invited to lecture on the relativity theory, he was asked to explain what it is to be a scientist. This kind of modernization meant to not use the old Japanese way of living, and some did not like that. If you introduce western way of thinking, you would also introduce western ideologies (such as communism).
When Einstein published his relativity, a lot of European scientists did not accept his idea directly. In Japan, they were much more enthusiastic, because they did not know most other European scientists, only Einstein. Very rapidly, the Japanese were already collaborating and being visible in the world. The development of science in Japan does not follow the Basalla model, but nevertheles was very successful. The effort of Japanese scientists was not aided by the western countries, and they were at the forfront within 2 generations.
India
India is a country with a rich cultural heritage, known for its historical significance in mathematics and scientific thinking. For centuries, it has been a hub for the movement of people and trading companies. The British colonized India in the 19th century, making it a part of the British Empire. Despite colonial rule, India had a longstanding tradition of scientific inquiry and education.
Indian scholars and leaders aspired to establish their own scientific institutions to gain autonomy from British control. Initially, scientific advice and institutions were dominated by the British, with little to no involvement from Indian scientists. However, efforts to create independent scientific establishments began well before India gained independence in 1947. Local societies and organizations were formed to resist British domination in science and education.
One significant milestone was the establishment of the Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science (IACS) in 1876, founded by Mahendra Lal Sircar with the support of European allies like Father Eugène Lafont, a Belgian Jesuit. The IACS provided a platform for Indian scientists to conduct experiments and engage in scientific discourse. This association emphasized basic research rather than applied science, focusing on areas such as spectroscopy, astronomy, and astrophysics.
During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, translations of scientific works into Indian languages became more common. However, Hindu culture was often viewed primarily through a spiritual lens, which Mahendra Lal Sircar contested, highlighting India’s historical achievements in mathematics and science.
Mahatma Gandhi, a prominent leader in the Indian independence movement, advocated for an approach to modernization that was rooted in India’s cultural and scientific traditions rather than mimicking the Western model. He emphasized that India’s progress should benefit its people rather than serving to enrich colonial powers like Britain.
Argentina
Argentina was never formally a colony in the sense that it was directly governed by a European power as a colony; it was part of the Spanish Empire until its independence in 1816. By the 20th century, Argentina had already established itself as an independent nation. The country experienced significant agricultural development, and many wealthy Argentinians often had little interest in local culture, preferring to send their sons to Europe for education.
Science and technology were primarily imported from Europe, and there was a growing need for scientists in the 20th century. Despite Argentina being very Western and European-oriented, there was initially little interest in scientific education within the country. Efforts to advance science included hiring European scientists due to the lack of established Argentinian scientists.
In 1897, there was an attempt to incorporate physical sciences into university curricula, but many members of the Argentinian elite were skeptical about the value of this initiative. Students at local universities often did not belong to the elite and struggled to secure top-tier jobs.
Albert Einstein’s visit to Argentina in 1925 aimed to raise awareness about the importance of scientific research. In 1951, the Argentine government decided to pursue nuclear research. However, there was a shortage of adequately prepared scientists to manage the project effectively.
In 1966, a military coup occurred, and universities were targeted due to the perception that they harbored leftist ideologies. This led to significant disruptions in academic and scientific progress.
When comparing the development of physics in Argentina and Canada, it is evident that societal attitudes towards education play a crucial role. In many countries, education was primarily accessible to the elite, and subjects like physics, which involve abstract and theoretical concepts with long-term practical applications, were less appealing compared to more immediately practical fields like chemistry.
The development of physics and other sciences in various countries is influenced by numerous factors, including societal values, economic conditions, and historical contexts. European countries such as Portugal and Estonia also had to align with more central nations to advance scientifically. Italy, for example, gained prominence in physics with the contributions of Enrico Fermi and had to catch up with France and Germany. Thus, the history of scientific development within Europe shares similarities with the challenges faced by countries outside Europe.